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<title>Sentence clause structure</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sentence clause structure</span></span>

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<p>In <a href="Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <b>sentence and clause structure</b>, commonly known as <b>sentence composition</b>, is the classification of <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a> based on the number and kind of <a href="Clause" title="Clause">clauses</a> in their <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic structure</a>. Such division is an element of <a href="Traditional_grammar" title="Traditional grammar">traditional grammar</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typology_of_clauses">Typology of clauses</h2></div>

<p>In standard English, sentences are composed of five <i>clause</i> patterns:

</p>

<ol><li>Subject + Verb (intransitive)<br><i>Example:</i> She runs.</li>

<li>Subject + Verb (transitive) + Object<br><i>Example:</i> She runs the meeting.</li>

<li>Subject + Verb (linking) + Subject Complement (adjective, noun, pronoun)<br><i>Example:</i> Abdul is happy. Jeanne is a person. I am she.</li>

<li>Subject + Verb (transitive) + Indirect Object + Direct Object<br><i>Example:</i> She made me a pie.<br>This clause pattern is a derivative of S+V+O, transforming the object of a preposition into an indirect object of the verb, as the example sentence in transformational grammar is actually "She made a pie for me".</li>

<li>Subject + Verb (transitive) + Object + Object Complement<br><i>Example:</i> They made him happy.<br>They did not make "him", and they did not make "happy"; they made "him happy"—the object and its complement form a syntactical unit.</li></ol>

<p>Sentences – which are composed of these clauses, in either "dependent" or "independent" form – also have patterns, as explained below.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typology_of_sentences">Typology of sentences</h2></div>

<p>A <i>simple sentence</i> consists of only one clause. A <i>compound sentence</i> consists of two or more <a href="Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">independent clauses</a>. A <i>complex sentence</i> has at least one independent clause plus at least one <a href="Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A set of words with no independent clause may be an <i>incomplete sentence</i>, also called a <i>sentence fragment</i>.

</p><p>A sentence consisting of at least one dependent clause and at least two independent clauses may be called a <i>complex-compound sentence</i> or <i>compound-complex sentence</i>.

</p><p>Sentence 1 is an example of a simple sentence. Sentence 2 is compound because "so" is considered a coordinating conjunction in English, and sentence 3 is complex. Sentence 4 is compound-complex (also known as complex-compound). Example 5 is a sentence fragment.

</p>

<ol><li><i>I like trains.</i></li>

<li><i>I don't know how to bake, so I buy my bread already made.</i></li>

<li><i>I enjoyed the apple pie that you bought for me.</i></li>

<li><i>The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, who was smarter, lived inside the house.</i></li>

<li><i>What an idiot!</i></li></ol>

<p>The simple sentence in example 1 contains one clause. Example 2 has two clauses (<i>I don't know how to bake</i> and <i>I buy my bread already made</i>), combined into a single sentence with the <a href="Coordinating_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinating conjunction">coordinating conjunction</a> <i>so</i>. In example 3, <i>I enjoyed the apple pie</i> is an independent clause, and <i>that you bought for me</i> is a dependent clause; the sentence is thus complex. In sentence 4, <i>The dog lived in the garden</i> and <i>the cat lived inside the house</i> are both independent clauses; <i>who was smarter</i> is a dependent clause. Example 5 is an <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)#Classification" title="Sentence (linguistics)">exclamatory sentence</a> of an exclamative and a noun phrase but no verb. It is not a grammatically complete clause.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Simple_sentences">Simple sentences</h2></div>

<p>A simple sentence structure contains one <a href="Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">independent clause</a> and no <a href="Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clauses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozakis_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozakis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, <i>I</i>, and one <a href="Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">verb</a>, <i>run</i>.

</p>

<ul><li><i>The girl ran into her bedroom.</i></li></ul>

<p>This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, <i>girl</i>, and one predicate, <i>ran into her bedroom</i>. The predicate is a <a href="Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> that consists of more than one word.

</p>

<ul><li><i>In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat.</i></li></ul>

<p>This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, <i>dog</i>, and one predicate, <i>barked and howled at the cat</i>. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound predicate: <i>barked</i> and <i>howled</i>. (This should not be confused with a compound sentence.) <i>In the backyard</i> and <i>at the cat</i> are <a href="Prepositional_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrase">prepositional phrases</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compound_sentences">Compound sentences</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Atomic_sentence#Compound_sentences" title="Atomic sentence">Atomic sentence § Compound sentences</a>.</div>

<p>In the English language, a <b>compound sentence</b> is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a <i>coordinating</i> conjunction, a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. Conjunctions are words such as <i>for</i>, <i>and</i>, <i>nor</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>yet</i>, and <i>so</i>. Examples:

</p>

<ul><li>I started on time, but I arrived late.</li>

<li>I will accept your offer or decline it; these are the two options.</li>

<li>The law was passed: from April 1, all cars would have to be tested.</li>

<li>The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was occupied.</li></ul>

<p>The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of an appropriate conjunction is called a <a href="Comma_splice" title="Comma splice">comma splice</a> and is generally considered an error (when used in the English language).<sup id="cite_ref-Rozakis_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozakis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Example:

</p>

<ul><li>The sun was shining, everyone appeared happy.</li></ul>

<p>If a sentence contains <i>homogenous</i> members referring to another common member of the sentence, the sentence may be considered either simple<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or compound.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the homogenous members are removed, then the sentence is called <i>contracted</i>. In some languages, like Russian, a comma is not always required in a sentence with homogenous members.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Alex likes to fish, and he is going fishing on Friday – Alex likes to fish, and is going fishing on Friday.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complex_and_compound-complex_sentences">Complex and compound-complex sentences</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">Dependent clause</a></div>

<p>A complex sentence has one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex sentences must also have at least one independent clause. In short, a sentence with one or more dependent clauses and at least one independent clause is a complex sentence. A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.

</p><p>In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a <a href="Subordinating_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinating conjunction">subordinating conjunction</a> or similar word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of these give the clause an <a href="Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbial</a> function, specifying time, place, or manner. Such clauses are called <a href="Adverbial_clause" title="Adverbial clause">adverbial clauses</a>.

</p>

<ul><li><i>When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only two things in my mind</i>. (<a href="S._E._Hinton" title="S. E. Hinton">S. E. Hinton</a>, <i><a href="The_Outsiders_(novel)" title="The Outsiders (novel)">The Outsiders</a></i>)</li></ul>

<p>This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, <i>When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house</i>. The adverbial clause describes when and where the action of the main clause, <i>I had only two things on my mind</i>, took place.

</p><p>A <a href="Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clause</a> is a dependent clause that modifies a <a href="Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> or noun phrase in the independent clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an <a href="Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a>.

</p>

<ul><li><i>Let him who has been deceived complain</i>. (<a href="Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>, <i><a href="Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a></i>)</li>

<li><i>You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you.</i> (<a href="J.K._Rowling" class="mw-redirect" title="J.K. Rowling">J.K. Rowling</a>, <i><a href="Harry_Potter_and_the_Sorcerer's_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone">Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone</a></i>)</li></ul>

<p>In the first example, the <a href="Restrictive_relative_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Restrictive relative clause">restrictive relative clause</a> <i>who has been deceived</i> specifies or defines the meaning of <i>him</i> in the independent clause, <i>Let him complain</i>. In the second example, the non-restrictive relative clause <i>who have never known your family</i> describes <i>you</i> in the independent clause, <i>You see them standing around you</i>.

</p><p>A <a href="Content_clause" title="Content clause">noun clause</a> is a dependent clause that functions like a noun. A noun clause may function as the <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of a clause, a <a href="Predicate_nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate nominative">predicate nominative</a>, an <a href="Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> or an <a href="Appositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Appositive">appositive</a>.

</p>

<ul><li><i>What she had realized was that love was that moment when your heart was about to burst.</i> (<a href="Stieg_Larsson" title="Stieg Larsson">Stieg Larsson</a>, <i><a href="The_Girl_with_the_Dragon_Tattoo" title="The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo">The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</a></i>)</li></ul>

<p>In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses. The noun clause <i>What she had realized</i> serves as the subject of the verb <i>was</i>, and <i>that love was that moment</i> serves as <a href="Subject_complement" title="Subject complement">complement</a>. The sentence also contains a relative clause, <i>when your heart was about to burst</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incomplete_sentences">Incomplete sentences</h2></div>

<p>An <b>incomplete sentence</b>, or <b>sentence fragment</b>, is a set of words that does not form a complete sentence, either because it does not express a complete thought or because it lacks some grammatical element, such as a subject or a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pasco_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pasco-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>An -<i>ing</i> fragment is a type of incomplete sentence containing a word ending in -<i>ing</i> that is a <a href="Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> or noun, not a verb, because it lacks a helping verb. An example is, "Swimming in the ocean".<sup id="cite_ref-Pasco_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pasco-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Some <a href="Prescriptive_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptive grammar">prescriptive grammars</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consider sentences starting with a <a href="Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunction</a> such as <i>but</i> or <i>and</i> to be incomplete sentences, but this style prescription has "no historical or grammatical foundation".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer grammar checkers often highlight incomplete sentences.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Run-on_sentences">Run-on sentences</h2></div>

<p>

A run-on sentence is a <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> that consists of two or more <a href="Independent_clauses" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent clauses">independent clauses</a> (i.e. clauses that have not been made dependent through the use of a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction) that are joined without appropriate punctuation: the clauses "run on" into confusion. The independent clauses can be "fused", as in "It is nearly half past five we cannot reach town before dark", in which case the two independent clauses might be separated (between "five" and "we") with a period [...five. We...], a comma and conjunction (...five, and we...), or a semicolon (...five; we...). The independent clauses can be joined <i>inadequately</i> with only a comma (the <a href="Comma_splice" title="Comma splice">comma splice</a>).

</p><p>In general, run-on sentences occur when two or more independent clauses are joined without using a <a href="Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">coordinating conjunction</a> (i.e. <i>for</i>, <i>and</i>, <i>nor</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>so</i>) or correct punctuation (i.e. semicolon, dash, or period).<sup id="cite_ref-Fused_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fused-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CCC_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCC-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A run-on sentence can be as short as four words – for instance, <i>I drive she walks</i>, or even <i>I drive, she walks,</i> – because in these short cases there are two <a href="Grammatical_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical subject">subjects</a> paired with two <a href="Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a>. An <a href="Imperative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative sentence">imperative sentence</a> like "Run walk" can be a run-on even if it only has two words.

</p><p>While some sources view comma splices as a form of run-on sentences,<sup id="cite_ref-CCC_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCC-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others limit the term to independent clauses that are joined without punctuation.<sup id="cite_ref-Fused_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fused-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Per <i><a href="The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i>, the term "run-on sentence" is also used for "a very long sentence, especially one lacking order or coherence".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Comma_splice" title="Comma splice">Comma splice</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFHuddleston1984" class="citation book cs1">Huddleston, Rodney (1984). <i>Introduction to the Grammar of English</i>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-29704-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Rozakis-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rozakis_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozakis_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRozakis,_Laurie2003" class="citation book cs1">Rozakis, Laurie (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00roza_091"><i>The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style</i></a></span>. Alpha. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00roza_091/page/n194">167</a>–168. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-59257-115-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFScheib1849" class="citation book cs1">Scheib, Henry (1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=30hAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55"><i>The Thought and Its Expression: A Grammar After the System Introduced Into the Best Schools of Germany</i></a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/sentences/compound-sentences.html">"Compound Sentences"</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yaklass.ru/p/russky-yazik/8-klass/prostoe-oslozhnennoe-predlozhenie-14619/predlozheniia-s-odnorodnymi-chlenami-13949/re-6e4953d0-466e-44d6-8f3b-9367e4fbd6a4">"Homogenous members of a sentence (in Russian)"</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair2007" class="citation book cs1">Sinclair, Christine (2007). <i>Grammar: Getting it Right</i>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-335-22008-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Pasco-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pasco_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pasco_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://writing-center.phsc.edu/grammar/sentence-structure/problems-sentences/fragments">"Fragments"</a>. Pasco-Hernando State College<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="H._W._Fowler" title="H. W. Fowler">H. W. Fowler</a> in <a href="Modern_English_Usage" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern English Usage">Modern English Usage</a> on BUT, p. 60 in the first edition.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="Chicago_Manual_of_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Manual of Style"><i>The Chicago Manual of Style</i></a> (16th ed.). Chicago: <a href="University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. 2010. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chicagomanualofs16edunse/page/257">257</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-10420-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Fused-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fused_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fused_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBerryBrizee2006" class="citation web cs1">Berry, Chris; Brizee, Allen (2006-08-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163000/https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/02/">"Runons – Comma Splices Fused Sentences"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/02/">the original</a> on June 12, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-CCC-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCC_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCC_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/runons.htm">"Run-on Sentences, Comma Splices"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elc.edu/english-grammar-lesson-run-ons/">"English Grammar Lesson - Run-Ons! - ELC"</a>. <i>ELC - English Language Center</i>. 2017-05-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHairstonRuszkiewiczFriend1998" class="citation book cs1">Hairston, Maxine; Ruszkiewicz, John J; Friend, Christy (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scottforesmanhan00hair_0"><i>The Scott Foresman Handbook for Writers</i></a></span> (5th ed.). New York: Longman. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scottforesmanhan00hair_0/page/509">509</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780321002488</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=run-on%20sentence"><i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i></a></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/incomplete_sentence" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:incomplete sentence">incomplete sentence</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/573/02/">"Sentence Types"</a>. <i>Online Writing Lab</i>. <a href="Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>. 1995<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCampos_Noguera" class="citation web cs1">Campos Noguera, José Manuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://englishpost.org/2012/06/19/complex-sentences/">"Complex sentences"</a>. <i>English Post: English Language Learning and Teaching</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnm.edu/depts/tutoring/tlc/res/AccuPlacer_English/264-Indep_DepClauses-C.pdf">"Independent and Dependent Clauses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Philosophy_of_language308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>

<li><a href="Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>

<li><a href="Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li>

<li><a href="Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li>

<li><a href="Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li>

<li><a href="Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li>

<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>

<li><a href="Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li>

<li><a href="Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li>

<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>

<li><a href="Statement_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li>

<li><a href="Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(n.d.)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1660)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1666)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character%2C_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1668)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1732)</span></li>

<li>"<a href="On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1905)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1921)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Language%2C_Truth%2C_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1936)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1951)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1953)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1967)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1980)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1982)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li>Task Force</li>

<li>Discussion</li></ul>

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